Absence in technicolour: protesting enforced disappearances in northern Sri Lanka

This essay examines the political uses of photography in protests Tamil families disappeared northern Sri Lanka. Enforced disappearances have long featured as an instrument state terror. Their lingering effects been noted a significant challenge to transitional justice processes aftermath island's civil war. By examining how protesters make their demands and grievances known through photography, I explore tensions between visibility surveillance. The competing photographies subvert conceptual understandings medium ideological tool, but also complicate claims its capacities for enabling emancipation. Against backdrop ethno-nationalist conflict, this mobilization serves defiant articulation post-war ‘irreconciliation’. It is further tethered global visual vernacular civilian resistance challenging atrocity, well irreconcilable assertions nation state. L'absence en Technicolor : protestations contre les disparitions forcées dans le nord du Lanka Résumé Le présent article examine usages politiques de la photographie des familles Tamouls disparus Les sont depuis longtemps un terreur d’État. On sait que leur retentissement durable est obstacle notable aux processus transitionnelle qui ont suivi guerre civile sur l’île. En examinant comment protestataires font connaître leurs exigences et doléances par photographie, l'autrice entre visibilité concurrentes subvertissent compréhension conceptuelle ce support comme outil idéologique, tout compliquant ses aspirations à devenir moyen d’émancipation. Dans contexte d'un conflit ethno-nationaliste, cette mobilisation constitue mise forme vindicative d'une « irréconciliation » d'après-guerre. Elle également liée langage visuel résistance société face atrocités commises États, ainsi qu’à affirmations irréconciliables l’État. Photography hands civilians has central making visible violence perpetrator's peace that followed Lanka's war (1983-2009). disappeared, consider limits unlikely expansion Azoulay's assertion ‘photographic citizenship’ (2008). photographies11 term ‘photographies’ follows from Tagg (1993: 119) indicating set discursive practices informed by Foucault Batchen's (2000: 57) consideration photographies. use instance indicate multiplicity everyday photographic relevant disappeared. emerged out these acts spaces were notably diverse. Identity card headshots, formal studio portraits, family album snaps shown displayed alongside grisly trophy images. Further entangled was journalists activists, intelligence personnel who frequented families’ roadside demonstrations. In setting, Tagg's (1993) claim tool (2008) invocation emancipation tussled tension visibility. shadow long-drawn highlighted remained irreconcilable. troubles expands photography's possibilities enhancing ‘civic spectatorship’ ‘de-territorialization’ (Azoulay 2008: 25). Dominant theorizations framed furthering Foucauldian notions governmentality surveillance (Tagg 1993). contrast, Azoulay proposes mode available oppressed (2008: 12). Such conceptualization transforms into ‘a struggle’ whereby citizenship bound solidarity responsibility might be fostered 14). appeal hopeful ultimately idealistic formulation. However, it empirical investigation precisely because ways which actively utilized community seeking hold accountable reckon with climate impunity (see Vaisman, volume). Through example, highlight protest accrue new meanings currency expedient and/or unexpected social subversion vivid Lanka, rendered multiple facets ‘irreconciliation’ visible, challenging, foremost, state's ‘peace’ achieved military victory. looked international mechanisms justice, having repeatedly failed successive governments. following Brudholm (2008), they largely uninterested core logic forgiveness design such well-meaning society initiatives reconciliation. While may succeeded claims, little progress locally terms know what happened loved ones. desire ‘never again’ inextricable nationalist politics liberation, where freedom oppression extant sovereign directly informs another (cf. 2008). protesters’ mood one resentment frustration, noting against them still continued other means harassment intimidation security persisted. since Lankan forces’ victory over Liberation Tigers Eelam (LTTE) May 2009. As self-appointed militant representatives community, LTTE's demand self-determination, response decades discrimination, took shape independent homeland. group's no less authoritarian or violently contrived than state, featuring governance structures pervasive transnational cultural-ideological project centred on necessity Stokke 2006; Thiranagama 2013).22 About quarter population live outside predominantly consequence conflict-induced displacement dispersal (Maunaguru 2019: 7). Between 2006 2009, after breakdown 2002 ceasefire agreement, armed hostilities LTTE intensified. 300,000 trapped paradoxically (mis)named ‘No Fire Zones’ (NFZs) subjected indiscriminate shelling aerial bombardment at military. Meanwhile, resorted forced conscription blocking those trying escape effort uprooted human shield. estimated September 2008 around 40,000 70,000 people killed amounted deliberate catastrophic failure protect civilians. Credible allegations crimes humanity levelled both government (Darusman, Ratner & Sooka 2011; International Crimes Evidence Project 2014; Petrie, UN Secretary-General Internal Review Panel United Nations Action 2012). Politically vocal sections diaspora called atrocities 2009 afforded recognition act genocide. These indictments resolutely denied government, maintained line ‘humanitarian rescue operation’, citing ‘zero casualties’. necessary preface ensuing discussion period briefly pointing wartime image regimes consolidated LTTE. world aspirant engineered socialization, recruitment, fund-raising. elaborate memorial portraiture anointing fallen cadres martyrs, extensive atrocity imagery own prowess. Nitharsanam (Truth/Reality), broadcast media unit, included frontline video film-making divisions. ‘visual economy played crucial role LTTE’s nation-state building tethering displaced dispersed across globe promise Poole 1997). efforts mobilizing images coherent, would adopt strategies had successfully manoeuvred circulation mainstream served important function promoting militarism Mel describes ‘martial virtue’ (2007: 13). A virtually cinematic record named ‘Eelam War IV’ narrated embedded popularized triumphalist account heroic defeat terrorism battlefield benevolence forces Perera 2016). marked technical development transition analogue film-based practice digital outputs. An unprecedented volume generated frontlines victims perpetrators. Significantly, advent mobile phone compact cameras gave rise graphic contra-narratives disputed various official untruths concealing extent humanitarian crisis unfolding absence witnesses.33 final months fighting described ‘war without witnesses’ given withdrawal staff zone government's prohibition entering NFZs. Thousands photographs clips captured soldiers celebrated vicious summary executions sexual violence. State documented photographers photojournalists aid workers NFZs call internationally mediated mounted avail. period, fragments visually enumerating death devastation supplement accountability. They bolster transnationally sustaining aspiration Eelam. Nordstrom notes ‘there are layers invisibility surrounding war’ ‘complex relationships truth, untruth silencing’ produced deleting actors actions narratives accounts (2004: 25, 28). concerted erasure, silencing, spatial (re)organization, embellishment. relied not only infrastructure development, heritage construction, cultural production, terror suppression aimed contriving consensus ‘peace’. remnants nationalist-liberationist struggle assertively expunged, post/war44 post/war abbreviation combine postwar. overlooked denied. history-making visual-material manufacture removal cultivation ‘public forgetfulness’ comparable Feldman's examination post-apartheid South Africa, silence demanded way ‘fear, intimidation, communal trauma, disinformation communicative distortion’ (2002: 236). Yet persists resisting state-mandated amnesia. end went hand appeals assistance establishing reconciliation examples spanning Africa Cambodia. demonstrably processes, condemned widely Sinhalese nationalists threat sovereignty. ‘Peace building’ part years intervention securing ‘political solution’ conflict strengthening (Orjuela pressure address mounted, conciliatory domestic place guise 2011 ‘Lessons Learnt Reconciliation Commission’ (LLRC). LLRC did constitute accountability mechanism offered instead series recommendations unfulfilled emphasizing ‘the need judiciary, transparent legal process, strict adherence rule law’ (Sooka 2014: 67). Further, denial refusal accommodate review, coupled pledge heroes’, purpose electoral majority. aftermath, thousands Lankans forcibly vast majority Tamil. large number vanished surrender cases termed ‘mass disappearances’, while others detained abducted due alleged involvements militancy, activism, criticism government.55 Truth Justice Human Rights Data Analysis Group note three-day 17 19 total 503 individuals, including 443 persons cross-referenced, crowd-sourced lists, upon (Ball Harrison 2018). used extensively insurrectionary groups. 65,000 enforced affecting Sinhalese, Tamil, Muslim communities reported early 1980s, constituting, notoriously, second-highest caseload globally (UNWGEID Women-led began 1984 formation Jaffna Mothers’ Front opposition mass arrests detention boys men (de 2001: 230). De Alwis site contestation’ violent circumstances within ‘insidious unavailable violated body evidence’ (2009: 379). remains results being unable carry funerary rituals ensure peaceful afterlife, rendering particularly malicious. will explored later, positioning motherhood gender cannot disentangled representational dynamics protest. most recent incarnation, ‘The Association Relatives Disappeared, North East Provinces’ (ARED) made up mothers whose children latter stages Activists documenting rights violations themselves intimidated, imprisoned, Following several recurrent marches war, short-lived regime change 2015 enabled confront provide information about ones.66 opposition-led Yahpalanaya (good governance) coalition National Party (UNP) Freedom (SLFP) led President Maithripala Sirisena Prime Minister Ranil Wickramasinghe power 2019. presidential election previous Mahinda Rajapaksa (2005-15). Sustained February 2017 based five demands, release lists surrendered forces, locations secret centres, names detainees held under Prevention Terrorism Act (PTA) Emergency Regulations (ERs) (ARED 2017). undertook piecemeal vague commitments creating commissions inquiry, Office Missing Persons (OMP).77 Since 1994, governments established least eight Presidential Commissions inquiry ‘removals’ disappearances, three zonal commissions. recent, 2013 ‘Presidential Commission Investigate Complaints Regarding Persons’, ‘Paranagama Commission’, subsequent expansions, underpinned OMP, inquired abductions related 10 June 1990 Paranagama received 23,566 complaints, approximately 5,000 personnel. Established 2017, OMP intended ‘to appropriate searching tracing missing clarify fate’ identify suitable avenues redress (Parliament Democratic Socialist Republic possess punitive powers deal investigations testimony identifying perpetrators, enactment patently stating findings should give any criminal liability. families, misled disappointed promises insincere institutional years, more audience, appealing community. iconographies charted concerns. Alongside portraits vinyl banners printed flags States, Kingdom, European Union. Hand-drawn cardboard signs declared lack faith process urged attention (Fig. 1). Even mobilized affirmed theorization potential create ‘space relations exclusively ruling power’ 12), simultaneously acknowledged failings existing redress. wore on, disappointment worsened. Despite atmosphere contempt left practical recourse access, compounding sentiments exasperation ‘unforgiveness’ (Brudholm 16). Indeed, many felt onus ‘reconciliation’, especially advocated organizations society, imposed rather perpetrators themselves. Kilinochchi Maruthankerny among 23,586 individuals recorded ‘missing’ Among lost ones ‘shadow state’ before 1990, means, arbitrary arrest.88 Thomson-Senanayake (2014) establishment ‘shadow-state’ economic, political, legal, socioeconomic framework carried out. hollowness accompanied dismissive statements figures, seen confirmation disingenuousness interest grievances. reinforced fact crossed LTTE-held territory government-controlled areas officially registered. personally handed grandchildren leadership's broken surrendees endured point frustration (Rajasingham Most recently, Gotabaya Rajapaksa, architects phase his Defence Secretary, stated, dead. bring back dead’ (Abi-Habib Bastians 2020). tone changed significantly beginning, becoming ‘formalized’. tent, morphed office, continuous halting 500-day mark regular demonstrations taking place. threaded mobilization, subversion, Here contrasting conceptualizations jostle uneasy contention. Drawing (1980) Althusser (2001 [1970]), considers solely reflective apparatuses local deploy guarantee authority constructs stand evidence register truth’ 64). argues camera's capacity ‘powerful forms commotion communion’ overcome confines (2015: 15). Photography, she argues, times civic refuge disposal robbed 121). renders potentials discontent irreconciliation. essential question visibility, affords possibility risk self-determination concerned. Visibility truth violences required visible. centre either confession, atonement, testimony, forgiveness, Christianized ethos foster cohesion, criminological, forensic reliance presentation ‘evidence’. historically depended indexical capacity, informing, turn, medium's assumption: Nader's (2001) understanding, contrive harmony involve coercion, which, example determined complex impaired citizenship, freedom. Reflecting experiences facto actor, Brun defines position citizenship’, there clear-cut relationship citizens governing uncompromising must relate to’ 401). arose situation ‘impaired hierarchies inequalities exist category ‘Sri Lankan’ 24). Where defeated, characterized renewed complexity, inequality, impairment, punctuated landscape At time publication, north east engaged 1,900 days meagre tents scattered six towns pinned haunting disappearance, elderly parents, grandparents, spouses, siblings, sometimes young sat vigil 2). mostly poised, full-length, vividly painted backdrops conventions opulent stage curtains, grand arches, lush Italianate scenery. Others enlarged reproductions Card (NIC) valued frontality: headshots facing right semi-profile ear fully per stipulation. disconcerting pictured school uniform. Several informal, tender moments clipped weddings, birthday parties, gatherings friends. usable photographs, black white photocopies identity documents revealing interwoven realities displacement, loss, economic hardship. Barthes's poignant terms, ‘every photograph [was] certificate presence’ (2010 [1980]: 87). indexed lives abruptly drawing brutalities necessitated display. women forcefully conscripted fill depleting ranks, during internment squalid ‘welfare centres’, never again ‘rehabilitation’ camps 12,000 identified ‘ex-combatants’. signposting fear forgotten common protesters, instances wounded when separated families. merely articulations guide find home. Photographs themselves, parents grandparents circulations, become mnemonics failures processes. Yet, contrast Mookherjee's (2015) exploration iconicity Bangladeshi heroines’, appeared ignored island. subject insidious photography. operatives habitually activities phones cameras. mutual awareness, supporters, informers, along contending photographies, orbited another. ‘reconciliation’ roads, white-washed complexes, monuments, transient sites incompatible opposed narrative small east, technicolour. Journalists activists intermittently visited compile news items. certain days, members eager narrate stories. Heartbreak rehearsed visiting writers photographers. Each iteration inconceivable despair desperation, acknowledged. Correspondence relating complaints Red Cross responses arrived languages speak (English/Sinhala) frustration. Private tucked-away shopping bags conversations quieter cruelly disrupted lives. some words. Instead, cupped offerings camera. times, discouraged, distaste apprehensions possible commoditization entrepreneurial immigration brokers expressed. concerns hinted perceived contract future protections, entitlements, citizenships. Foreign correspondents fixers organize assembly lines hands, photos, tearful faces add colour explainers. evoked Kleinman describe ‘dismay images’ distilled suffering, situating (1996: 9). anything passive subjects images, thinking efficacy expediency, highlighting importantly agency involved performative ‘victimhood’. understanding demonstrated nature language perhaps even signalled spectatorship, ideals mechanisms. demonstration marking commemorations Day protest's milestones measured continuity, presented photographed 3). ‘chronic mourners’ snapped (Schirmer 1989: bodies situated photomontages loss holding pictures palms.